Thank you for joining a Hillgoers Winter Skills Event!

We’ve created this web page to outline some of the resources that we discussed on your course and to give you an opportunity to do some further reading.

Avalanche Awareness

Some more detail…

Below is a detailed outline of what to think about when planning your winter day out and some techniques to use when on your winter journey. It isn’t exhaustive and there are some books listed at the end that may be of use!

Planning your day

Navigation

Navigation is always important in the hills, but even more so in winter. Visibility is often poor, paths and streams can be obscured by snow, and the risks of veering off course are much higher. Always carry a map and compass – and know how to use them! If you’re unsure, you can book on a navigation course which should equip you with some skills and the confidence to use them. Additionally, I would recommend carrying a backup GPS or phone with mapping software (and battery pack). There are plenty of free mapping apps to choose from, and many have subscription options that allow you to access OS or Harvey maps. Examples include OutdoorActive, Memory Map, OS Maps, OS Locate (location only).

Weather

It goes without saying that in winter, the weather is often far more extreme than at other times of year. Temperatures are often below zero. Falling snow makes for poor visibility. Wind speeds are usually higher which can contribute to arduous walking conditions and wind chill. These are all things to take into account when deciding whether to venture out!

There are several good forecasting services (see Important Links) that are best used in conjunction with one another.

It’s a good idea to keep an eye on the weather forecast for a few days before you go out. This is because watching temperatures, how much snow is falling, and what the wind is doing can give you a good idea of what ground conditions to expect. Is there going to be lots of powder snow to wade through? Will you have to ascend or descend icy slopes? Where do you think the most snow is going to accumulate?

You can use webcams at ski centres such as Cairngorm Mountain and Glenshee to assess ground conditions and check your predictions, and the SAIS Blog usually contains a good description of area-specific snow conditions, along with photos.

Avalanche forecast

The Scottish Avalanche Information Service (SAIS) is the place to go for avalanche forecasts. They are divided into areas (e.g. Northern Cairngorms, Southern Cairngorms, Lochaber etc.) and are based on assessments made by a team of experts heading out every day to look at the snowpack. Hazard levels are classed as Low, Moderate, Considerable, High, or in rare cases, Extreme. Low hazard does not mean there is no danger, and most avalanche incidents involving people are reported to occur in Moderate conditions – it’s worth considering why that might be!

Hazard levels are colour-coded and explained in detail on the SAIS website, but in the meantime, here is a quick overview of what you might see in a report. The most striking thing on the page will be the brightly coloured ‘pizza’, as shown in Figure 1. Imagine that this is a very simplified map of a cone-shaped mountain, with three different heights marked, and divided into compass points. In Figure 1, for example, a north-facing slope is Moderate hazard between 600 and 900m, and Considerable hazard above 900m.

Diagram by Lauren Kedar

The forecasters make their assessment based on the following factors:

  1. current weather conditions, and how this might affect the snow while they’re out.

  2. visual and practical snowpack observations (location and orientation of drifts, weak layers in the snow etc.).

  3. weather forecast for the next 24 hours, and what this might do to the snow.

With all of this information, they make a prediction of what the avalanche hazard might be over the next 24 hours, and what specific hazards you might encounter on the hill. This is number (4).

On the SAIS website, the avalanche report is written (4)-(3)-(2)-(1), but it is often useful to read it the other way around, ending with the forecast. That way you have a good understanding of how they came to make their predictions.

Key terms are outlined in Figure 2. On the hill, look out for windslab, identifiable by its matt white appearance and a squeaky, polystyrene-like feel when you walk on it. It may crack and break away around your footprints, and you may find you can pick up blocks of it. Windslab is particularly dangerous because it can slide as a big layer or slab and is the cause of most avalanches in Scotland.

Cornices are overhanging lips of snow which often form at the top of steeper slopes. They can collapse without warning if they get too big to support their own weight, or if the temperature rises. You may see the term cross-loading in forecasts too, which means that you should be aware of localised patches of dangerous snow on otherwise benign slopes, for example in burn lines.

Kit

Think of everything you’d take out on the hill with you on a wild, rainy day in summer. Then add more of everything! More layers, more gloves (I’d recommend at least one thick and one thin pair, but the more the merrier), and more food. Take a hot drink too, and I personally always carry a couple of pairs of hand warmers. They just make life that bit more enjoyable.

In terms of technical kit, you will ALWAYS need an ice axe and crampons, and boots that fit your crampons. B2 boots are the best as they are designed to keep your feet warm and protect them when you’re kicking steps into hard snow. Those who have tried to do this in ‘summer boots’ will understand the pain! B2s also have good hard edges which make step kicking easier and safer.

You will have used a helmet on your course, but whether you take one out with you for personal use when winter hillwalking is entirely up to you. If you’re not sure, wear one until you feel comfortable with the techniques covered. You won’t look silly!

Additionally, make sure you’ve got a hat, buff, and goggles to protect your face in the wind and snow. It’s not just a warmth thing, but a safety thing too.

We’ve already mentioned maps, compasses, and GPS systems above. Knowing how to use them is key. Winter days are short and walking in snow always takes longer than you think, so ALWAYS carry a headtorch, perhaps even two, or at the very least carry spare batteries. Along with a first aid kit, it’s a good idea to carry a group shelter or survival bag, as in an emergency getting out of the wind is vital.

View our kit list here

Your Journey

Avalanche and snow conditions

As you walk, keep an eye out for changes in the snow conditions which either confirm or differ from the avalanche forecast. Is the wind coming from the direction predicted? Where is the snow accumulating the most? Look out for signs of windslab or snowdrifts in sheltered areas – are they where you expected? Check, for example, the accumulation of snow on the leeward side of boulders.

You will have planned to avoid any risky slopes, but sometimes irregularities in slope angle and aspect that are below map resolution can pose a danger. Look out for weak layers, & cornices above you (Figure 4), signs of avalanche debris and windslab (Figure 5).

Use of an ice axe

Hold your axe vertically with your hand around the head of the axe (Figure 6), shaft pointing down, and the pick facing backwards. Carry it in your dominant hand if going straight up or downhill. If traversing a slope or zigzagging up or down it, carry it in your uphill hand. You will have to swap hands as you change direction.

Your axe is primarily a tool for balance and security when walking, and can be driven into the snow for additional security if you are uncomfortable or feel yourself start to slip. It is especially useful in this position when changing direction.

On steeper ground, you may wish to use the pick of the axe in the snow instead of the shaft, whilst still holding the head of the axe. This is known as ‘daggering’ and can be used in ascent, traverse, or descent. An axe can also be used for digging or cutting (see below).

Moving on snow: kicking steps

With good winter boots, it’s possible to walk on a lot of snowy terrain without crampons, particularly if it’s not too steep or serious. The best way to do this is to adopt a kicking motion, swinging from the knee; B2 boots will provide a good bit of weight to swing with!

When kicking steps to traverse a slope or to ascend diagonally, use the side of your boot like a saw (Figure 7). You may need more than one kick to get a big enough step to support your foot comfortably. When ascending directly, kick your toes into the snow (Figure 8). With both techniques, try to angle the sole of your boot into the slope so that your foot doesn’t slip out.

When descending relatively soft snow, you can walk directly down the slope and plunge your heels into the snow (Figure 9). If the slope is steeper or the snow harder, you can descend diagonally in the same way that you would ascend. On steeper slopes still, you might want to face into the slope and kick your toes in, as with ascent.

Moving on snow: cutting steps

Sometimes you might come across a patch of snow that’s a bit too hard to kick steps on but is short-lived enough that donning crampons would seem excessive. In this situation, you may want to use your axe to cut some steps.

Holding the axe at the end of the shaft, with the pick facing forwards, you can slash the adze across the snow in a wide, swinging motion. Do this with the uphill arm if ascending; and the downhill arm if descending. The idea is to create steps that can be used with the side of the boot in this case.

You can also cut steps for your toes when ascending steeper slopes by cutting directly into the snow in a chopping motion. Moving on steep terrain can be tiring. If your calves start to burn or you need to take a rest for any other reason, you can quickly hack a ‘bucket step’ with a horizontal base that is big enough to stand in. If you need to take your rucksack off, you can dig a hole to rest that in, too.

Moving on snow: crampons

When the snow is hard or icy, or the ground is uncomfortably steep, it’s time to put crampons on. It’s usually best to put them on before it gets to the point where you find you actually need them! With this in mind, try to look at the slope ahead as you move. You may find it more comfortable to wear crampons on a slope where other members of your group are coping without them – and that’s OK. There’s no rule really as to when you need to take crampons off either – you can wear them in soft snow too, although they might be a bit heavy to walk in. In crusty snow, you should be careful to pick your feet up so that your front points don’t catch on the ice!

There are two main ways of walking with crampons. The first is known as ‘flat-footing’. This technique involves trying to keep the sole of your boot flat against the snow surface so that all points on your crampons are pressed into the snow. It can be employed in ascent (Figure 10), traverse (Figure 11), and descent (Figure 12).

With much steeper slopes, you may wish to ‘front-point’, that is, to kick the forward-facing points on the front of your boot into the snow in a similar way to kicking toe steps. You don’t want your heels down, because your points might slip out, but don’t have them too high or else the points might break through the snow surface below your foot (Figure 13). It’s worth examining the angle of your front points before you go out so that you can get a feel for how to best angle them into the slope.

Sometimes, if the slope is too steep to flat-foot on, you can adopt a hybrid technique whereby your downhill foot is flat against the slope and your uphill foot front-points. This is good if you’re zigzagging up a slope because it’s a bit less tiring on the calves than pure front-pointing. Again, you will find the best technique for you based on your calf strength and ankle flexibility!

Last resort: stopping a slide

If you do find yourself sliding, don’t panic, but do act fast – the further you slide, the faster you will travel, and the harder it will be to stop.

Whatever position you are in, try to roll onto your front so that you can press the pick into the snow and use it as a brake. If you are sliding headfirst, try to stick your axe out to the side to provide a sort of anchor to pivot around.

Summary

There’s a lot of information to take in when beginning to head into the hills in winter and you are never going to learn everything required on one winter skills course. There’s no substitute for experience so go out and practice, make sure you choose your objective wisely, listen to your gut and have fun!!

Words and Figures 1-2, 6-13 courtesy of Lauren Kedar

FURTHER READING

Hillwalking by Steve Long et al. – The Mountain Training hillwalking handbook. If you’re not sure about basic navigation, this has some good advice so you can get to grips with it before taking the next steps and applying it to winter.

Winter Skills by Andy Cummingham, Allen Fyffe et al. – the handbook for all things winter by Mountain Training. Covers in great detail everything that’s mentioned in these notes and that you will have covered on your course. Don’t be put off by the second half of the book which goes into ropework and climbing – that won’t apply to you!

Staying Alive in Avalanche Terrain by Bruce Tremper – more geared towards backcountry skiers dealing with drier snow such as in North America and the Alps, but it does have some excellent information about avalanches and is extremely well-written! If you want detail and stats and a good dose of dry humour, this is the place to look.

Chance in a Million?: Scottish Avalanches by Bob Barton and Blythe Wright – a Scotland-specific avalanche handbook with case studies. Looks into why people get avalanched and has a particular focus on how historic accidents could have been avoided.

Mountaincraft and Leadership by Eric Langmuir – an old book, quite outdated in places, but has some good information about navigation, snow, and crampon/axe technique which is all still relevant.